Zero-volt storage

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Aluminium foil

The positive current collector, typically 10–15 µm thick. A thin passive film keeps it stable at the high potential of the positive electrode, where copper would corrode.

Copper dissolution

Oxidation of the copper current collector when a cell is over-discharged and the negative electrode’s potential rises too high. Dissolved copper redeposits on recharge as metallic filaments that can short the separator, which is why over-discharged cells are not simply recharged.

Over-discharge

Discharging below the lower cutoff voltage. Near 1.5 V the copper current collector begins to dissolve, and on the next charge it can redeposit as metal that shorts the cell, so a deeply discharged cell should not simply be recharged.

Shipping state of charge

The state of charge at which cells leave the factory and travel, kept low to reduce both calendar aging and the energy available in an incident. Air-freight rules cap lithium-ion cells shipped alone at 30 %, and plants often target 10–20 %.

Sodium-ion battery

A cell built like a lithium-ion cell but shuttling sodium ions, usually between a hard-carbon negative and a layered-oxide (NFM), polyanionic (NFPP, NVP) or Prussian-blue positive. It uses no lithium or cobalt and needs no copper foil, so it can be stored at 0 V, at the cost of lower energy density.

UN 38.3

The United Nations test sequence that every lithium cell and battery must pass before it can be shipped: altitude, thermal cycling, vibration, shock, external short, impact or crush, overcharge and forced discharge. Air shipment of cells also caps state of charge at 30 %.

References & further reading

Further reading on this topic

These sources provide broader context; they are not presented as citations for every statement in this entry.

1. Thermal runaway mechanism of lithium ion battery for electric vehicles: A review

   Xuning Feng et al. · Energy Storage Materials · 2018

   Topic background · Electrical, mechanical and thermal abuse; thermal-runaway mechanisms and propagation.