Inductively coupled plasma spectrometry

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Black mass

The dark powder of mixed electrode materials left after end-of-life cells are discharged, shredded and separated from their casings, foils and separators. It is the traded intermediate that hydrometallurgical refiners buy.

Cathode active material

The lithium-containing compound in the positive electrode — NMC, NCA, LFP or LCO powder — that supplies the cell’s cyclable lithium. It is the most expensive material in most cells and sets the nominal voltage and much of the energy density.

Post-mortem analysis

Opening an aged or failed cell in an inert glovebox and examining its electrodes by microscopy, diffraction and chemical analysis. It confirms which degradation mechanisms actually occurred rather than inferring them from voltage.

Transition-metal dissolution

Manganese, nickel or cobalt ions leaching from the positive electrode into the electrolyte, especially at high voltage and temperature or when HF is present. They migrate to the negative electrode and poison the SEI there, accelerating lithium loss.

X-ray fluorescence

Exciting a sample with X-rays and reading the characteristic X-rays each element re-emits — a fast, largely non-destructive composition measurement. It checks nickel, manganese and cobalt ratios, coating loading and black-mass grades, and finds transition metals deposited on aged anodes, but it cannot detect lithium.

References & further reading

Further reading on this topic

These sources provide broader context; they are not presented as citations for every statement in this entry.

1. Advanced characterization techniques for solid state lithium battery research

   Yuxuan Xiang, Xia Li, Yongqiang Cheng, Xueliang Sun, Yong Yang · Materials Today · 2020

   Topic background · X-ray, solid-state NMR and neutron methods in solid-state battery research.