Liquid metal battery

Example

Use in Lemonergy

Do not carry lithium-ion assumptions into every chemistry.

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Cycle life

The number of full charge–discharge cycles a cell completes before its capacity falls to a stated fraction, usually 80 %, of its initial value under defined conditions. LFP cells reach several thousand cycles; high-energy NMC fewer.

Long-duration energy storage

Storage that discharges for eight hours or more, filling gaps that lithium-ion’s one-to-four-hour systems leave. Flow, iron–air and thermal technologies compete for it by making energy capacity cheap even when power is not.

Sodium–nickel chloride battery

A high-temperature cell, run at about 270–350 °C, with molten sodium as negative, nickel and nickel chloride in molten sodium tetrachloroaluminate as positive, and a β″-alumina ceramic electrolyte between them, giving 2.58 V. Failed cells fail to low resistance, so a series string keeps working; it has served in buses, telecom backup and grid storage.

Sodium–sulfur battery

A high-temperature cell of molten sodium and molten sulfur separated by a β″-alumina ceramic electrolyte, operating at about 300–350 °C and giving roughly 2 V. Made commercially by NGK in Japan since the early 2000s, it has supplied hundreds of megawatts of six-hour grid storage; heater losses and fire risk from molten reactants are its drawbacks.

Stationary storage

Batteries installed in a fixed place — a container at a solar farm, a cabinet in a home — to shift energy in time or support the grid. LFP cells dominate because cost per cycle and safety matter more than mass.

References & further reading

Further reading on this topic

These sources provide broader context; they are not presented as citations for every statement in this entry.

1. Promise and reality of post-lithium-ion batteries with high energy densities

   Jang Wook Choi, Doron Aurbach · Nature Reviews Materials · 2016

   Topic background · Post-lithium-ion materials and battery concepts, including practical cell-level limitations; historical 2016 perspective.

2. DOE/EPRI 2013 Electricity Storage Handbook in Collaboration with NRECA

   Sandia National Laboratories · 2013

   Topic background · Storage technologies and grid services. The publisher notes that its historical cost and deployment figures are outdated.