Lithium carbonate

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Lithium brine

Lithium-rich salt water pumped from beneath the salt flats of Chile, Argentina and Bolivia and concentrated in evaporation ponds over a year or more. Direct lithium extraction aims to pull the lithium out chemically in days instead.

Calcination

Firing the precursor with a lithium source — lithium carbonate or, for high-nickel materials, lithium hydroxide — at 700–900 °C in kilns to form the layered oxide. Atmosphere and temperature profile control the crystal quality.

Lithium

The lightest metal, with the most negative electrode potential, which is why lithium cells have the highest voltage and specific energy of any practical chemistry. Inside a lithium-ion cell it exists only as Li⁺ ions in the electrolyte and in the electrode hosts, never as metal.

Lithium hydroxide

The lithium chemical required for high-nickel cathodes, which must be fired at temperatures too low for lithium carbonate to react. It is made from spodumene directly or by converting carbonate.

Spodumene

The hard-rock lithium ore, a lithium aluminium silicate mined mainly in Australia, concentrated to about 6 % Li₂O and shipped to converters, mostly in China, who turn it into carbonate or hydroxide.

References & further reading

Further reading on this topic

These sources provide broader context; they are not presented as citations for every statement in this entry.

1. Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 concerning batteries and waste batteries

   European Union / EUR-Lex · 2023

   Topic background · Battery sustainability, information, waste management and battery passport provisions. Consult the current consolidated text and applicable implementing acts.