Dead lithium

Example

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Separate mechanisms, observations and fitted models.

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Lithium plating

Lithium metal depositing on the negative-electrode surface instead of intercalating into it. It is promoted by charging at low temperature or high current.

Loss of lithium inventory

The degradation mode in which cyclable lithium is consumed by side reactions — SEI growth, plating, electrolyte decomposition — and can no longer shuttle between the electrodes. It is the dominant cause of capacity fade in most lithium-ion cells.

Solid–electrolyte interphase

A film of electrolyte reaction products on the negative-electrode particles — graphite, and also silicon or lithium metal. It protects the electrode from further reaction but grows slowly for the whole life of the cell, consuming cyclable lithium.

Titration gas chromatography

Quantifying metallic lithium in a cycled electrode by reacting it with water and measuring the hydrogen released by gas chromatography. Most SEI lithium compounds give off no hydrogen, so the method separates dead metallic lithium from SEI lithium down to about a microgram; it showed that unreacted metal dominates capacity loss in lithium-metal cells.

References & further reading

Technical references

1. Lithium ion battery degradation: what you need to know

   Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics · 2021

   Technical reference · Degradation mechanisms, modes, operational effects and their interactions.