Grading

Example

Use in Lemonergy

Place operations and quality checks in process order.

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Cell balancing

Equalising the state of charge of cells in series, since the pack is limited by its emptiest cell on discharge and its fullest on charge. Passive balancing bleeds charge from high cells through resistors; active balancing moves it between cells.

Cell-to-cell variation

The spread in capacity, resistance and self-discharge between nominally identical cells, from manufacturing and from unequal temperatures in service. It is why packs need balancing and why grading matches cells before assembly.

End-of-line testing

The final measurements on every finished cell — capacity, internal resistance and open-circuit voltage — used to reject faulty cells and sort good ones into matched grades.

References & further reading

Further reading on this topic

These sources provide broader context; they are not presented as citations for every statement in this entry.

1. Current and future lithium-ion battery manufacturing

   Yangtao Liu, Ruihan Zhang, Jun Wang, Yan Wang · iScience · 2021

   Topic background · Electrode preparation, cell assembly, formation and manufacturing trade-offs.