Electrode density

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Areal loading

How much active material, or capacity, an electrode carries per square centimetre of foil, typically 2–5 mAh/cm². Higher loading raises energy density but lengthens the ion path, which limits fast charging.

Calendering

Compressing a dried electrode coating between rollers to set its thickness, density and porosity. It is one of the electrode-making steps in cell production.

Energy density

Stored energy per unit volume, in watt-hours per litre. It is the figure that matters when space is the constraint, as in a phone or under a car floor; high-energy cylindrical cells pass 700 Wh/L.

Porosity

The fraction of a layer’s volume that is empty space. In a lithium-ion electrode the pores — roughly 20–35 % of the volume after calendering — are filled with electrolyte, which carries ions to the particles.

Tap density

The bulk density of a powder after a cylinder of it has been mechanically tapped a set number of times, as in ASTM B527. Dense, spherical NMC reaches about 2.6–2.8 g/cm³, LFP only about 0.8–1.1 g/cm³; higher tap density lets calendering reach a higher electrode density and so more energy per litre.

References & further reading

Further reading on this topic

These sources provide broader context; they are not presented as citations for every statement in this entry.

1. Current and future lithium-ion battery manufacturing

   Yangtao Liu, Ruihan Zhang, Jun Wang, Yan Wang · iScience · 2021

   Topic background · Electrode preparation, cell assembly, formation and manufacturing trade-offs.