24 V system

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48 V system

A vehicle electrical architecture at 48 V, used for mild hybrids and heavy accessories. It stays below the 60 V threshold at which high-voltage safety rules begin, so it needs no orange cables or interlocks.

Auxiliary battery

The small 12 V or 48 V battery in an electric vehicle that powers the controllers, lights and locks and wakes the BMS, kept charged from the high-voltage pack through a DC/DC converter. A flat auxiliary battery immobilises the car however full the main pack is.

DC/DC converter

The power electronics that step the high-voltage pack down to 12 V or 48 V for the auxiliary systems, replacing the alternator of a combustion car. Boost converters also appear between an 800 V pack and a 400 V charger.

Electric bus

A battery-electric city or coach bus, with packs of 300–700 kWh on the roof and at the rear, LFP or NMC, charged overnight in the depot or at the terminus by pantograph. Its duty cycle — long hours, deep daily cycles, a twelve-year life — makes battery aging the central engineering question.

Extra-low voltage

Voltage low enough to need reduced shock protection: at most 50 V AC rms or 120 V ripple-free DC under IEC 61140. SELV is separated from higher voltages and from earth; PELV is separated but earthed; FELV is low in value only, without protective separation, so it is protected like the circuit feeding it. Vehicle rules draw their line lower, at 60 V DC.

Lead–acid battery

The oldest rechargeable chemistry, lead and lead dioxide electrodes in sulfuric acid, at 2 V per cell. Heavy and short-lived in deep cycling but cheap, recyclable and good at cold cranking, it still starts most cars and backs up most telecom sites.

References & further reading

Further reading on this topic

These sources provide broader context; they are not presented as citations for every statement in this entry.

1. DOE/EPRI 2013 Electricity Storage Handbook in Collaboration with NRECA

   Sandia National Laboratories · 2013

   Topic background · Storage technologies and grid services. The publisher notes that its historical cost and deployment figures are outdated.